Brief information about IBM PC - compatible computers. Online configurator (assembly) of the system unit with compatibility check

Brief information about IBM PC - compatible computers

In this essay, we will try to briefly explain some of the features of IBM PC-compatible computers, and also introduce some basic concepts, which we will subsequently refer to more than once.

Open architecture (block-modular construction principle)

The appeal of IBM PC-compatible computers lies in their open architecture. This, in particular, means that such computers have a modular construction principle, that is, their main components and blocks are made in the form of separate modules. Thus, installing new or replacing old devices included in the computer is not particularly difficult. The improvement of such computers is entirely within the capabilities of the users themselves.

There are three main components in an IBM PC-compatible personal computer: the system unit, the monitor and the keyboard. The system unit contains all the main electronic components of the computer: power supply, motherboard (system) board and storage drives (disk drives) with removable or non-removable media. The keyboard is a standard input device that allows certain characters or characters to be sent to the computer.

control signals. A monitor (or display) is designed to display monochrome or color, symbolic or graphic information on its screen. All of the main components listed above are connected to each other using special cables with connectors.

The type of system unit case depends, in particular, on the dimensions and placement of the motherboard used, the minimum power of the power supply (that is, the possible number of connected devices) and the maximum number of installed drives. Computer cases come in tower and desktop versions. The main difference between these types of cases can be considered the different number of installation spaces for drives and, accordingly, the power of the power supply. By the way, installation spaces (mounting bays) for drives can be of two types: with external access and internal access. Thus, by definition, access to drives installed in mounting bays of the latter type can only be achieved with the system unit case cover open. Such installation locations can only be used for drives with non-removable media, such as hard drives.

The motherboard is the basis of the computer and is a flat sheet of foil fiberglass laminate on which the main electronic elements are located: a basic microprocessor, RAM, a quartz resonator and other auxiliary microcircuits.

In accordance with the principle of open architecture, most

IBM PC-compatible computers have motherboards that contain only the main components, and there are no communication elements, for example, with drives, a monitor and other peripheral devices. In this

In this case, these missing elements are located on separate printed circuit boards, which are inserted into special expansion connectors provided for this purpose on the system board. These additional boards are called daughter boards, and the system board is called the motherboard. Functional devices made on daughter boards are often called controllers or adapters, and the daughter boards themselves are called expansion cards.

Microprocessors and system buses

IBM PC-compatible computers use only Intel microprocessors or their clones with a similar architecture.

The microprocessor is connected to the main devices of the computer through the so-called system bus. This bus not only transmits information, but also addresses devices, as well as exchanges special service signals. As a rule, additional devices are connected to the system bus through expansion connectors.

To connect expansion cards on the system bus of computers based on the i8088 microprocessor (IBM PC and IBM PC/XT), 62-pin connectors are used. In particular, this system bus includes 8 data lines and 20 address lines, which limit the computer's address space to a limit of

1 MB. For the first time, PC/AT286 computers began to use the new ISA (Industry Standard Architecture) system bus, through which it was possible to transmit 16 bits of data in parallel, and thanks to 24 address lines, directly access 16 MB of system memory. This system bus differs from the previous one in the presence of an additional 36-pin connector for the corresponding expansion cards. Computers based on i80386/486 microprocessors began to use special buses for memory, which made it possible to make maximum use of its speed. However, some devices connected through the system bus expansion connectors cannot achieve the transfer speed comparable to a microprocessor. This mainly concerns working with storage controllers and video adapters. To solve this problem, they began to use so-called local buses, which directly connect the microprocessor with the controllers of these peripheral devices. Currently, two standard local buses are known: VL-bus (VESA Local-bus) and PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect). To connect devices to such buses, there are special connectors on the computer motherboard.

Ports, interrupts, direct memory access

The microprocessor considers all devices on the system bus either as addressable memory or as I/O ports. Generally speaking, a port refers to a certain interface circuit, which usually includes one or more input/output registers (special memory cells).

The microprocessor can learn about the occurrence of a certain event by a signal called an interrupt. In this case, the execution of the current sequence of commands is suspended (interrupted), and another sequence corresponding to this interruption begins to be executed instead. Interrupts are usually divided into hardware, logical and software.

Hardware interrupts (IRQs) are transmitted over special lines on the system bus and are associated with requests from external devices (for example, pressing a key on a keyboard). Logical interrupts occur during the operation of the microprocessor itself (for example, division by zero), and software interrupts are initiated by the executing program and are usually used to call special subroutines.

The first IBM PCs used the i8259 Interrupt Controller chip, which has eight interrupt inputs (IRQ0-IRQ7). As is known, at the same time the microprocessor can service only one event and in selecting this event it is helped by the interrupt controller, which sets a certain level of importance for each of its inputs - priority. The highest priority is the interrupt request line IRQ0, and the lowest is IRQ7, that is, the priority decreases in ascending order of the line number. In IBM PC/AT, eight interrupt lines were no longer enough and their number was increased to 15. In the first models, the cascade connection of two i8259 chips was used for this. It was carried out by connecting the output of the second controller to the IRQ2 input of the first.

The following is important to understand here. Interrupt lines IRQ8 - IRQ15 (that is, the inputs of the second controller) have a priority lower than IRQ1, but higher than IRQ3.

In direct access mode (DMA, Direct Memory Access), the peripheral device communicates with the RAM directly, and not through the internal registers of the microprocessor. Such data transfer is most effective in situations where a high exchange rate is required for a large amount of information. To initiate the direct access process, appropriate signals are used on the system bus.

In computers compatible with IBM PC and PC/XT, one 4-channel DMA i8237 chip is used to organize direct memory access, channel 0 of which is intended for dynamic memory regeneration. Channels 2 and 3 are used to control high-speed data transfer between floppy drives, hard drive and RAM, respectively.

IBM PC/AT-compatible computers have 7 channels of direct memory access. In the first computers, this was achieved by cascading two i8237 chips, as in the case of interrupt controllers.

Computer memory

All personal computers use three types of memory: RAM, permanent memory and external memory (various storage devices). RAM is designed to store variable information, since it allows its contents to change as the microprocessor performs corresponding operations. Since a randomly selected cell can be accessed at any time, this type of memory is also called random access memory - RAM (Random Access Memory).

All programs, including gaming ones, are executed in RAM. Permanent memory usually contains information that should not change for a long time. Permanent memory has its own name - ROM (Read Only Memory), which indicates that it provides only read and storage modes.

Logical memory organization

As you know, the i8088 microprocessor used in the IBM PC, PC/XT, through its 20 address buses, provides access to only 1 MB of memory space. The first 640 KB of addressable space on IBM PC-compatible computers is usually called conventional memory. The remaining 384 KB are reserved for system use and are called memory in upper addresses (UMB, Upper Memory Blocks, High DOS Memory or UM Area - UMA). This memory area is reserved for the placement of the system ROM BIOS (Read Only Memory Basic Input Output System), for video memory and ROM memory of additional adapters.

Additional (expanded) memory

On almost all personal computers, the UMB memory area is rarely completely full. As a rule, the expansion area of ​​the system ROM BIOS or part of the video memory and areas for additional ROM modules are empty. This is the basis of the EMS (Expanded Memory Specification) additional memory specification, first developed by Lotus Development, Intel and Microsoft (therefore sometimes called the LIM specification). This specification allows the use of RAM beyond the standard 640 KB for application programs. The principle of using additional memory is based on switching memory blocks (pages). In the UMB area, between the video buffer and the system RGM BIOS, an unallocated 64 KB “window” is allocated, which is divided into pages. Software and hardware allow any segment of additional memory to be mapped to any of the allocated "window(TM)" pages. Although the microprocessor always accesses the data stored in the "window" (address below 1 MB), the addresses of this data may be offset in additional memory relative to "windows" of several megabytes (see Fig. 1).

In computers with an i8088 processor, to implement additional memory, special boards with hardware support for “paging” memory blocks (pages) and the corresponding software driver must be used. Of course, additional memory cards can also be installed in computers based on i80286 and higher processors.

Extended memory

Computers using the l80286 processor with 24-bit address buses can physically address 16 MB, and in the case of i80386/486 processors, 4 GB of memory. This option is available only for the processor's protected mode, which the MS-DOS operating system does not support. Extended memory is located above the 1 MB address area (do not confuse 1 MB of RAM with 1 MB of address space). To work with extended memory, the microprocessor must switch from real to protected mode and back. Unlike the l80286, the i80386/486 microprocessors perform this operation quite simply, which is why MS-DOS has a special driver for them - the EMM386 memory manager (see Fig. 2).

By the way, if you have the appropriate driver, extended memory can be emulated as additional memory. In this case, hardware support must be provided by a microprocessor of at least i80386 or an auxiliary set of special chips (for example, NEAT sets from Chips and Technologies). It should be noted that many memory cards that support the LIM/EMS standard can also be used as expanded memory.

Cache memory

Cache memory is designed to match the speed of relatively slow devices, such as dynamic memory, with a fast microprocessor. Using cache memory avoids wait cycles in its operation, which reduce the performance of the entire system.

Using cache memory, an attempt is usually made to coordinate the operation of external devices, for example, various drives, and the microprocessor. The appropriate cache controller must ensure that instructions and data that will be needed by the microprocessor at a certain point in time are in the cache memory at that moment.

Storage devices

Storage devices can be classified according to the following criteria:

by type of storage elements

by functional purpose

by type of circulation organization

by the nature of reading

by storage method

by way of organization

By type of storage elements

Semiconductor

Magnetic

Capacitor

Optoelectronic

Holographic

Cryogenic

By functional purpose

By type, method of organization of appeal

With sequential search

With direct access

Address

Associative

Stacked

Store

By the nature of reading

With the destruction of information

Without destroying information

By storage method

Static

Dynamic

By method of organization

Single-axis

Two-coordinate

Three-coordinate

Two-three coordinate

References

To prepare this work, materials were used from the site http://referat2000.bizforum.ru/

The computer configurator with compatibility check allows you to quickly assemble a system unit with the technical characteristics required by the user. Using our online designer, you can easily assemble a reliable office machine, a home multimedia system unit, or a powerful gaming configuration.

Computer assembly online

Nowadays, like many years before, assembling a computer from independently selected components is popular. This is a good opportunity to choose what you want. Nothing limits you; there are hundreds of options available for assembly, among which there is sure to be one you like.

Our online store offers the opportunity to assemble a computer online through the configurator. In it, this process is presented in the form of categories of components, from the processor to the power supply. Each category contains an expanded range of models with descriptions of characteristics for ease of selection.

To simplify the selection of components, the configurator has a compatibility filter for the main components of the assembly. For example, by selecting a specific processor, the following components are automatically filtered by compatibility. You will also be presented with a choice to install the operating system. After completing the assembly process, you receive the final result based on three parameters: price, technical data, rendered image. After placing an order and confirming it by phone, our specialists assemble this kit and check its functionality.

The advantage of this method of purchasing a system unit is that you not only choose the components you want, but also have the opportunity to choose the brand or manufacturer of the part.

Having assembled a certain configuration and completed by pressing the assemble/buy buttons, the assembly is assigned a specific serial number, by typing it in the product search bar, you can find this PC and send a link to it to friends or acquaintances for consultation or recommending them for purchase.

An important feature of our configurator is the “get an expert’s opinion” function. By sending your request through this form, you will receive a detailed response with a recommendation to the email you specified.

Try it and see for yourself - assembling a computer online is easy and simple! In case of difficulties, you can always get advice from our specialists on all issues that interest you.

The majority (more than 90%) of modern computers are IBM PC-compatible personal computers. These computers are called IBM PC-compatible because they are compatible with the IBM PC computer, developed in 1981 by the world's largest computer company, IBM. The word "compatibility" here means: software compatibility - all programs developed for the IBM PC will work on all IBM PC-compatible computers; to a large extent - and hardware compatibility: the vast majority of devices for IBM PC computers and newer versions (IBM PC XT, IBM PC AT, etc.) are also suitable for modern computers. True, usually ancient devices (five or ten years ago) are not used in modern computers, since they have long been morally obsolete.

And the word “personal” means that this computer is designed to work with one user at a time (large computers, as a rule, support the simultaneous work of many users).

The most important role in the development of IBM PC-compatible computers was played by the open architecture principle laid down in them by IBM. IBM did not make the computer a single one-piece device, but provided the ability to assemble it from independently manufactured parts, similar to a children's construction set. At the same time, the methods of pairing various parts of the IBM PC computer and connecting external devices to it were not only not kept secret, but were available to everyone. Therefore, not only selected IBM companies, but everyone who wanted to, could produce components and external devices for the IBM PC, and soon hundreds of companies began assembling the computers themselves. A couple of years later, IBM became not a monopolist in the production of computers it developed, but one of thousands of firms competing with each other. Moreover, many assemblers began not only to adopt the achievements of IBM, but also to introduce many technical innovations before IBM, so that IBM ceased to be a technological leader. Now IBM has ceased to be the largest manufacturer of IBM PC-compatible computers. And even the term “IBM PC” is usually used in the sense of “IBM PC-compatible computer”, and not as the name of a computer manufactured by IBM itself.

But what was detrimental to IBM had the most favorable effect on the market for IBM PC-compatible computers. Competition from thousands of computer assemblers, component and software manufacturers has led to a rapid increase in the capabilities of computers, devices and software designed for them and a decrease in their prices. Many companies invested huge amounts of money in software development because they were confident that the programs would work on all IBM PC-compatible computers, no matter what models appeared in the future.

The openness of the market for IBM PC-compatible computers led to intense competition from thousands of manufacturers of computers and their components, and therefore to the fastest possible pace of introduction of technical innovations that increased the capabilities of computers while maintaining relatively low prices (from several hundred to several thousand dollars). The modular design and integration of components of IBM PC-compatible computers ensured the compactness of the computers, their high reliability and ease of repair.

The modular design of IBM PC-compatible computers also made it possible to easily upgrade them, including by the users themselves. As a result, users could tailor these computers to their needs by purchasing and connecting a particular device, as well as increasing the power of their computer (for example, by installing a more powerful processor or a larger hard drive).

The relatively high capabilities of IBM PC-compatible computers for processing information made it possible to use them (and not more powerful computers) both to solve the vast majority of business problems and for almost all personal needs of users.

Text Analysis

Information

This publication belongs to popular science literature, the reader's address is popular.

This book contains information related to computers; it tells in an accessible form about the structure of a computer, programs, and working on a computer.

The purpose of this book is not only to provide information about the capabilities of a personal computer. The compiler of the textbook offers the reader the history of the appearance of the computer, helps to find rational programs and methods of doing work. And if at first glance such information seems superfluous, then after studying it, firstly, your horizons broaden, and working on a computer becomes extremely simple and does not require lengthy and unnecessary operations.

This book consists of several sections, divided into subsections. I looked at the section “What is a computer?”

IN subsection “What is a computer” tells about the evolution from the adding machine to the modern computer. An example is given of the difference in the scope of functions performed by these two devices.

IN subsection “Presenting information on a computer” states that information is stored in a computer only in numerical form. Any information in the PC is converted into numbers; in the system unit, data can only be processed in this form.

IN subsection “How a computer works” describes the structure of a computer and the principles of its operation. The subsection talks about the fact that any information is entered into the computer using input means (keyboard, scanner, etc.), then processed in the system unit and displayed to the user, for example, on a monitor.

IN subsection “Computer programs” It says that in general the computer does not perform any operations. They are dealt with by programs created specifically for this purpose. Readers can also learn about the types of existing programs.

IN subsection “IBM PC-compatible computers” The meaning of “compatibility” is explained, namely that all programs developed for the IBM PC will run on all IBM PC-compatible computers. The subsection provides comprehensive information about the consequences of creating such compatibility for both the manufacturer and ordinary users.

Thus, the purpose of this section is to provide general information about the origin, purpose and functions of the computer. This information is available to anyone, even those who have not previously dealt with such equipment. But at the same time, it is impossible to bypass them; it is impossible to move to the next stage of education without passing this step.

To evaluate the quality of the information given by the compiler, it is necessary to analyze it in terms of the following criteria:

In general, this text shows sufficiency of information, that is, the information in this section is presented in such a way that a double or incorrect perception of the author’s thoughts about the appearance of computers is excluded, the reader from the text correctly understands for himself the principles of computer operation.

Regarding need for information, the information given by the author helps to perceive the text and understand the thoughts of the compiler. And the structure of the text created by the compiler allows the reader to master a personal computer step by step, without jumping forward and without going back to what has already been studied.

A serious problem for some modern publications is redundancy of information. Facts, tautologies, and “extra” information that have long been known to everyone only clog up the text. Our section of the book does not suffer from redundancy of information.

It happens that the information contained in a work may be insufficient for an accurate understanding of it. In our case, the lack of information is observed in the subsection “Presentation of information on a computer.” It is unlikely that the uninitiated reader will immediately understand the principle of operation of the hexadecimal number system. In this case, an example of writing an expression in this system would be helpful.

It should be noted that the information in this section is intended to satisfy the non-professional interests of a wide range of readers. Since today the computer is an integral part of modern life, even those who do not work with it should have general information. Apparently, this is why the compiler made this part accessible to people of any age and regardless of education.

Information component

The information component represents the material selected by the author, facts, their necessity and sufficiency to achieve the goal of the work. The information component is manifested in a thoughtful, organized presentation of information.

To evaluate the information component, the following criteria are used:

• 2) The history of what is depicted - the text describes the history of the creation of computers from the adding machine to the modern PC, not omitting even the most unsuccessful attempts to create a computer.
• 3) Classification of the material - this publication is addressed to the general reader, since some sections contain information for general development, and the rest allow even an inexperienced reader who has not dealt with a computer to assimilate the material.

Thus, it is clear that the presentation of information both throughout the book and in the section “What is a computer?” organized logically and thoughtfully, which indicates the quality and strength of the information component.

Connection with other components

Without an informational component or if it is weak, a work, with rare exceptions, is unsuitable for use. At the same time, the information component can, even if there are facts and often with an abundance of them, fall apart. What connects information together and builds it into a work is most often the logical component, which is clearly expressed in our text.

An important role in the text is played by the psychological component, which attracts the reader’s attention and maintains interest, as well as the aesthetic component, which arises as a result of the reader’s intuitive assessment of the feasibility of the construction. Of course, depending on the purposes of the work, the meanings of one or another component in it change.

In our text, the dominant role is played by the information and logical components.

Computer compatibility

Classification of computers.

E generation (mid 40s - mid 50s).

Computer generations

The division of computer technology into generations is a very conditional, loose classification of computing systems according to the degree of development of hardware and software, as well as methods of communicating with a computer

The idea of ​​dividing machines into generations was brought to life by the fact that during the short history of its development, computer technology has undergone a great evolution both in terms of the elemental base ( lamps, transistors, microcircuits etc.), and in the sense of changing its structure, the emergence of new opportunities, expanding the scope of application and nature of use.

The development of computers has gone through several stages associated with generations of computers. Each generation of computers differs in their element base, architecture, scope of application, interfaces, and software tools for solving problems.

Element base - electronic tubes, resistors, capacitors; architecture is simple; application - scientific calculations; methods of communication - direct manual control of computer devices, programming in machine language.

1945-1950. The outstanding scientist J. von Neumann (USA) developed the concepts and design of the EDVAC computer. The basic principles of von Neumann's concept are still in use today.

1946 ᴦ. American engineers D. Eckert and D. Mauchly at the University of Pennsylvania built the first operating computer ENtAC.

1947-1950 A group of engineers led by academician S. A. Lebedeva develops and puts into operation the first small electronic calculating machine (MESM) in the USSR.

1948 ᴦ. A group of American physicists designed a transistor - the main element of a 2nd generation computer.

1949 ᴦ. In England, under the leadership of M. Wilkes, the first computer with a stored program, EDSAK, was created.

Early 50s. In several countries, serial production of 1st generation computers began, the main elemental base of which were vacuum tubes. RAM was built on mercury delay lines, CRTs and later on ferrite rings.

In the USSR, after MESM, the following were produced: in Moscow, a large electronic calculating machine BESM-1, BESM-2 (S.A. Lebedev) and the fastest computer in Europe at that time, M-10 (L. Lebedev and Yu.A. Bazilevsky), in Penza - Ural (V.I. Rameev), in Minsk - Minsk-1, Minsk-14 (V.V. Przhislovsky), in Kyiv - Kiev (V.M. Glushkov), in Yerevan - Rozdan (F.T. Sargsyan).

The introduction of the first computers could not take place without the rapid development of numerical methods for solving problems and the fundamentals of programming. This work in the USSR was led by academicians A.A. Markov, A.N. Kolmogorov, I.V. Kurchatov, M.A. Lavrentieva, A.A. Dorodnitsyn, M.V. Keldysh.

1942-1953. Soviet scientists A.A. Lyapunov and M.R. Shura-Pura proposed an operator programming method.

1943-1955. A group of mathematicians led by D. Backus (USA) developed the algorithmic language Fortran.

2nd generation (mid 50s to mid 60s): semiconductor transistors and diodes, resistors, capacitors; more complex architecture; solving scientific, technical and national economic problems; use of operating systems; creation of computer systems; collective use; development of algorithmic languages.

1954-1957. The first computer based on the NCR 304 transistor will be created in the USA.

Late 50s. At the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the algorithmic language LISP was developed, work on the problems of artificial intelligence in applied terms - for expert systems).

Early 60s. Serial production in the USSR of 2nd generation computers on transistors: M-220, BESM-3, BESG 4, Ural-11, Ural-14, Ural-16, Minsk-22, Minsk-32, Hrazdan-2ʼʼ, ʼʼHrazdan-3ʼʼ , ʼʼDnepr-1ʼʼ, ʼʼDnepr-3ʼʼ, etc.

1961 ᴦ. Intel (USA) released the first integrated circuits (ICs).

1966 ᴦ. The world's fastest (for that time) large EVG BESM-6 (S.A.Lsbsdsv) was put into operation in the USSR. The high performance of BESM-6 was due to the first use of a multi-program operating mode and a pipeline data processing procedure, which are used in almost all modern computers.

3rd generation (mid 60s - mid 70s) integrated circuits; architecture is associated with multi-processor, multi-machine and multi-channel systems; solving a wide range of problems of automation of management, design and planning; efficient operating systems, application programs and programming languages; emergence of the first computer networks.

1965 ᴦ. In the USA, the production of 3rd generation computers of the 360 ​​series based on integrated circuits has begun.

1966 ᴦ. The algorithmic language COBOL (USA) has been developed for processing commercial information.

1986 ᴦ. DEC (USA) has developed mini-computers of the PDP family with a wide range of applications: scientific research, process control, real-time processing of experimental data, automation of engineering, economic and managerial work, etc.

Early 70s. In the USSR, together with specialists from the People's Republic of Belarus, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and the German Democratic Republic, 3rd generation computers of the unified system (ES COMPUTER) were developed and produced in the required quantity. These computers, compatible with the IBM 360, served as the basis for the organization of shared computing centers and automated control systems in large organizations and enterprises.

1971 ᴦ. Intel (USA) has released a microprocessor based on IC technology.

1971 ᴦ. The US Department of Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency announced the launch of the first part of the global information and computing network ARPANET. In 1982. ARPANET was merged with other networks and this community of networks was called the Internet.

70s - early 80s. In the USA, England and the USSR, supercomputers come into operation: ILLIAC-IV, STATAN-100, Sgau-1 (2, 3, MX), Cyber-205, DAP, Phenix, Connection machine, “Elbrus”.

1973-1976 Specialists from the USSR, People's Republic of Belarus, Hungary, Poland, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Mongolia and Cuba have developed a series of minicomputers compatible with PDP (USA).

4th generation (mid 70s - 2000 ᴦ.): large integrated circuits; complex architecture; solving various problems in all areas of human activity; multitasking and multi-user operating systems; ʼʼpersonal type manipulators; speech input and output devices; multimedia tools; effective application programs and languages ​​that support artificial intelligence; development of computer network infrastructure.

1977 ᴦ. In the USA, young entrepreneurs S. Jobson and S. Wozniak organized a company to produce inexpensive PCs intended for a wide range of users. These PCs, called APPLE, served as the basis for the widespread use of PCs throughout the world.

1979-1980 Japanese specialists have developed and launched the first electronic dictionary-translators.

1981 ᴦ. A group of leading specialists from several electronic companies in Japan announced the creation of a 5th generation computer in the 90s ("Japanese challenge to the world").

1982 ᴦ. IBM (USA), which occupied a leading position in the production of large computers, began production of the IBM PC. Many companies around the world began producing IBM joint PCs.

Mid 80's. Groups of scientists led by K. Sagan (USA) and V.V. Aleksandrov (USSR) developed mathematical models of the consequences of “nuclear winter” and “nuclear night”. These conclusions played a huge role in shaping the policies of countries holding atomic weapons.

1988 ᴦ. The USSR began mass production of school PCs (Korvet, UKNTs, Nemiga, etc.) and household PCs (BK 0010, Partner, Vector, Byte, etc.).

Today, a large number of electronic companies in the world produce various classes of computers from household ones to supercomputers in stationary and portable versions. The current computer fleet in the world is approximately: PC 2.5 ‣‣‣ 10 8 pcs.; mini-computer-10 6 pcs.; manframes - 2 * 10 4 pcs. supercomputers - 100 pcs.

5th generation (early 21st century). Now it is difficult to predict what the 6th generation computers will look like, but we can indicate the general trends in the development of computer technologies and their impact on society.

Development is also on the way "intellectualization" computers, eliminating the barrier between man and computer. Computers will be able to perceive information from handwritten or printed text, from forms, from the human voice, recognize the user by voice, and translate from one language to another.

In sixth generation computers there will be a qualitative transition from processing data for processing knowledge.

Creation of a family of computers with fundamentally new capabilities that will provide:

efficient use of all available resources of the country: material, energy, human information;

improving performance in areas of low productivity;

inclusion of the country in international cooperation;

improving the use of the intellectual potential of society;

increasing the competitiveness of goods on the international market;

increasing the productivity of the population;

promoting a high level of education.

The computer element base assumes:

achieving the maximum packing density of elements in silicon-based VLSI circuits;

production of VLSI based on gallium arsenide;

use of cryogenic technology based on the Josephson effect.

Computer architectures are being improved in the following areas:

· creation of a computer system of varying power, balanced in architecture, which will allow the user to quickly, simply and effectively use the huge potential of such a system;

· development of single-processor PCs with command control, based on a new high-speed element base; These areas are being developed by those companies that want to maintain software compatibility of new PCs with existing ones;

· development of computers on several fast processors with command control, some of which are universal, and the other part are pipeline or parallel with a small number of processor elements;

· development of high-performance multiprocessor computers with pipeline, parallel or matrix information processing.

In addition to well-known methods of information processing, computers are focused on pattern recognition and processing of structured knowledge and making intelligent decisions.

Improving smart interfaces:

technical and software means of input/output of various types of information;

communication in problem-oriented natural spoken language;

use of text documents, both printed and handwritten, and images;

full development of known and new algorithmic programming languages;

use of artificial intelligence languages: Lisp Prolog, PS, FRL, VALID, OCCAM, etc.

The implementation of programs to create 5th generation computers will make it possible to build the so-called information society in a number of countries.

There are various classifications of computer equipment:

by stages of development (by generations);

in architecture;

by productivity;

according to operating conditions;

by number of processors;

according to consumer properties, etc.

There are no clear boundaries between computer classes. As structures and production technologies improve, new classes of computers appear, and the boundaries of existing classes change significantly.

According to operating conditions, computers are divided into two types:

office (universal);

special.

Office ones are designed to solve a wide class of problems under normal operating conditions.

Special computers are used to solve a narrower class of problems or even one task that requires multiple solutions, and operate under special operating conditions.

The machine resources of dedicated computers are often limited. Moreover, their narrow orientation makes it possible to implement a given class of tasks most effectively.

Special computers control technological installations, work in operating rooms or ambulances, on rockets, airplanes and helicopters, near high-voltage transmission lines or in the range of radars, radio transmitters, in unheated rooms, under water at depth, in conditions of dust, dirt, vibrations, explosive gases, etc. There are many models of such computers. Let's get acquainted with one of them.

Computer Ergotouch

The Ergotouch computer is housed in a cast aluminum, fully sealed case that is easy to open for maintenance.

The walls of the computer absorb almost all electromagnetic radiation, both from the inside and outside. The machine is equipped with a touch-sensitive screen.

The computer can be washed with a hose, disinfected, decontaminated, and degreased without turning it off.

The highest reliability allows it to be used as a means of managing and monitoring technological processes in real time. The computer is easily included in the local network of the enterprise.

An important direction in the creation of industrial computers is the development "operator interface"- control panels, displays, keyboards and pointing devices in all possible designs. The comfort and productivity of operators directly depends on these products.

Based on performance and nature of use, computers can be divided into:

microcomputers, incl. - personal computers;

minicomputers;

mainframes (general purpose computers);

supercomputers.

Microcomputers are computers in which the central processing unit is designed as a microprocessor.

Advanced models of microcomputers have several microprocessors. Computer performance is determined not only by the characteristics of the microprocessor used, but also by the capacity of RAM, types of peripheral devices, quality of design solutions, etc.

Microcomputers provide tools for solving a variety of complex problems. Their microprocessors are increasing in power every year, and their peripherals are increasing in efficiency. Performance is about 1 - 10 million operations per second.

A type of microcomputer is a microcontroller.
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This is a microprocessor-based specialized device that is built into a control system or process line.

Modern computer technology can be classified as follows:

· Personal computers;

· Corporate computers;

· Supercomputers.

Personal computers (PCs) are general-purpose microcomputers designed for one user and controlled by one person.

The class of personal computers includes various machines - from cheap home and gaming machines with small RAM, with program memory on a cassette tape and a regular TV as a display, to highly complex machines with a powerful processor, a hard drive with a capacity of tens of gigabytes, with high-definition color graphics, multimedia and other additional devices.

Personal computers are computer systems, all the resources of which are completely aimed at supporting the activities of one employee.

The most famous are the IBM PC and Macintosh family of computers. These are two different directions of PC development, incompatible with each other in hardware and software. It just so happens that Macintosh family computers are very easy to use, have extensive graphic capabilities and are widely used among professional artists, designers, in publishing and in education.

In the IBM family of compatible PCs, one can also distinguish several types of computers, which differ significantly from each other in their characteristics and appearance, and, nevertheless, they are all personal computers. These are, first of all, desktop and portable PCs, which, despite significant external differences, have approximately the same characteristics and capabilities.

Laptop PCs– expensive products, but they are compact and transportable. PDAs are significantly different from desktop and portable ones - so-called organizers, or “portable secretaries”. These PC notepads have neither peripheral devices nor a keyboard; commands are selected directly on the miniature screen using a stylus.

Laptop computers Usually needed by business leaders, managers, scientists, journalists who have to work outside the office - at home, at presentations or during business trips.

Main types of laptop computers:

Laptop (knee pad, from lap- knee and top- on top). It is close in size to a regular briefcase. In terms of basic characteristics (performance, memory) it is approximately the same as a desktop PC. Now computers of this type are giving way to even smaller ones.

Notebook (notepad, notebook). It is closer in size to a large format book. It weighs about 3 kᴦ. Fits in a briefcase. It is important to note that for communication with the office it is usually equipped with modem. Laptops often provide CD-ROM drives.

Many modern laptops include interchangeable blocks with standard connectors. Such modules are designed for very different functions. You can insert a CD drive, a magnetic disk drive, a spare battery, or a removable hard drive into the same slot as needed.
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Laptop resistant to power failures. Even if it receives energy from a regular power grid, in case of any failure it instantly switches to battery power.

Personal digital assistant

Palmtop (handheld) is the smallest modern personal computer. Fits in the palm of your hand. Magnetic disks are replaced by non-volatile electronic memory. There are no disk drives either - the exchange of information with ordinary computers goes through communication lines. If Palmtop is supplemented with a set of business programs recorded in its permanent memory, it will turn out personal digital assistant (Personal Digital Assistant).

Corporate computers(sometimes called a mini-computer or main frame) are computing systems that ensure the joint activities of many workers within one organization, one project, one area of ​​information activity using the same information and computing resources. These are multi-user systems that have a central unit with large computing power and significant information resources, to which is attached a large number of workstations with minimal equipment (video terminal, keyboard, positioning device such as a mouse and, possibly, a printing device). In principle, personal computers can also be used as workstations connected to the central unit of a corporate computer. The scope of application of corporate computers is the implementation of information technologies to support management activities in large financial and industrial organizations, government agencies, the creation of information systems that serve a large number of users within one function (exchange and banking systems, booking and selling tickets, etc. ).

Features of corporate computers:

Exceptional reliability;

High performance;

High I/O throughput.

The cost of such computers is millions of dollars. Demand is high.

Advantages - centralized data storage and processing is cheaper than maintaining distributed data processing systems consisting of hundreds and thousands of PCs.

Supercomputers are computing systems with extreme characteristics of computing power and information resources. Οʜᴎ are used in the military and space fields, in fundamental scientific research, global weather forecasting, military industry, geology, etc. For example, weather forecasting or modeling a nuclear explosion.

Supercomputer architecture is based on ideas parallelism And pipelining of calculations.

In these machines, many similar operations are performed in parallel, that is, simultaneously (this is usually called multiprocessing). Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, ultra-high performance is ensured not for all tasks, but only for tasks, amenable to parallelization.

A distinctive feature of supercomputers are vector processors equipped with equipment for parallel execution of operations with multidimensional digital objects - vectors and matrices. They have built-in vector registers and a parallel pipelined processing mechanism. If on a conventional processor the programmer performs operations on each vector component in turn, then on a vector processor he issues vector commands at once.

Vector hardware is very expensive, in particular because it requires a lot of ultra-high-speed memory for vector registers.

The most common supercomputers are massively parallel computer systems. They have tens of thousands of processors interacting through a complex, hierarchically organized memory system.

As an example, consider the characteristics multi-purpose massively parallel mid-class supercomputer Intel Pentium Pro 200. This computer contains 9200 Pentium Pro processors at 200 MHz, for a total of (theoretically) performance 1.34 Teraflop(1 Teraflop is equal to 10 12 floating point operations per second), has 537 GB of memory and disks with a capacity of 2.25 Terabytes. The system weighs 44 tons (air conditioners for it weigh as much as 300 tons) and consumes power of 850 kW.

Supercomputers are used to solve complex and large scientific problems (meteorology, hydrodynamics, etc.), in management, intelligence, as centralized information repositories, etc.

The element base is microcircuits with an ultra-high degree of integration.

The cost is tens of millions of dollars.

Purpose – solving those tasks for which PC performance is not enough;

Providing centralized storage and processing of data.

Features: the ability to connect tens and hundreds of terminals or PCs for user work; the presence of special hardware for three-dimensional modeling and animation; therefore, a large number of films are created on them.

Mainframes are designed to solve a wide class of scientific and technical problems and are complex and expensive machines. It is advisable to use them in large systems with at least 200 - 300 workstations.

Centralized data processing on a mainframe is approximately 5-6 times cheaper than distributed processing using a client-server approach.

Famous mainframe S/390 IBM is usually equipped with at least three processors. The maximum amount of operational storage reaches 342 Terabytes.

The performance of its processors, channel throughput, and the amount of RAM storage allow you to increase the number of workstations in the range from 20 to 200,000 by simply adding processor boards, RAM modules and disk drives.

Dozens of mainframes can work together running a single operating system to perform a single task.

This classification is quite arbitrary, since the intensive development of technologies for the production of electronic components, significant progress in improving computers and their most important components lead to a blurring of the boundaries between these classes of computer equipment.

At the same time, the above classification takes into account only the autonomous use of computer technology. Today, the prevailing trend is to combine them into computer networks, which makes it possible to integrate information and computing resources for the most effective implementation of information technologies.

IBM PC - compatible computers - about 90% of all modern computers.

Compatibility is:

Software compatibility - all IBM PC programs will run on all IBM PC compatible computers.

Hardware compatibility - most devices (except those five or ten years old) for IBM PC computers and newer versions of IBM PC XT, IBM RS AT and others are suitable for IBM PC-compatible computers.

Advantages of IBM PC-compatible computers:

1) full compatibility has led to the emergence of hundreds of thousands of programs for all areas of human activity;

2) the openness of the market for IBM PC-compatible computers has caused intense competition among manufacturers of computers and their components, which has ensured high reliability, relatively low prices and the fastest possible introduction of technical innovations;

3) modular design and integration of IBM PC components - compatible computers that provide compactness, high reliability, ease of repair, the possibility of easy modernization and increasing the power of the computer (more powerful processor or more capacious hard drive).

The wide capabilities of IBM PC-compatible computers allow them to be used in various industries and to solve various problems.

Questions for self-control

1. By what criteria can computers be divided into classes and types?

7. How has the elemental base of computers evolved from generation to generation?

8. When did microcomputers become available for widespread home use?

9. Can you connect the concepts “apple”, “garage” and “computer”?

10. On the basis of what technical elements were the first generation computers created?

11. What is the main problem faced by developers and users from the experience of operating first-generation computers?

12. What element base is typical for the second generation of computers?

13. What function does the operating system perform during computer operation?

14. On what element base are third generation machines constructed?

15. Which generations of computers are characterized by widespread use of integrated circuits?

16. What speed is typical for fourth generation machines?

17. What is meant by the “intelligence” of computers?

18. What problem should the “intelligent interface” solve in fifth-generation machines?

19. What features should industrial computers have?

20. What is an operator computer interface?

21. By what main features can mainframes be distinguished from other modern computers?

22. How many users are mainframes designed for?

23. What ideas underlie the architecture of supercomputers?

24. On what types of tasks are the capabilities of supercomputers realized to the maximum?

Topic 5 . PC AS THE BASIS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

1. PC architecture

2. PC structure

3. PC functional characteristics

Computer compatibility - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Computer Compatibility" 2017, 2018.

The first step is to determine exactly the tasks for which your future system unit will be used. If you plan to purchase gaming equipment, then special attention should be paid to the video card, and for a graphics workstation, the processor power and the amount of RAM play a fundamental role. The least demanding in terms of performance are office systems. You don't even need to add an external video card, because the built-in one will be enough. First you need to select a processor. This element affects the overall performance of the entire system, and the more cores there are (and the higher their operating frequency), the faster operations will be performed.

Next, the PC configurator will help you select a motherboard. It must be compatible with the CPU and support RAM of the required frequency. Pay attention to the presence of all the necessary slots and connectors, as well as the size of the motherboard itself (ATX, micro ATX, mini ATX, etc.). Usually, any of them already has a built-in network and sound card. The online store website builder will automatically select suitable options after you select a processor, and will exclude those that are not suitable. A gaming computer must be equipped with an external video card. If you want to regularly play modern games and forget about upgrading your system for a long time, then you should not save. This also applies to the amount of RAM; it will not particularly affect the cost of the PC, but will significantly affect performance. The volume of the hard drive determines the amount of information that you can simultaneously store on your computer. But to increase system performance, it is recommended to additionally install an SSD drive. It will contain the OS, programs and applications.

For convenient work with external storage media, the system unit is optionally equipped with an optical drive and a card reader. One of the important elements of the system unit is the power supply. Its power should be selected after calculating the total amount of electricity consumption by the components. In addition, leave a reserve of 100-200 W for reliable operation under increased loads on the processor and video card. The designer will not let you make a mistake when choosing a power supply, since he will take into account the components you have chosen and will provide only suitable cases with power supplies.

The configuration of a powerful gaming computer includes an additional cooling system, which is selected automatically, depending on the selected processor. All that remains is to assemble everything into the case. It can be very simple and straightforward if you plan to install the system unit under the table, where no one will see it, or it can have neon lighting and a window on the side that allows you to observe the operation of the system (gaming options). This is a matter of taste, but keep in mind that the case for a gaming PC should be spacious and have good ventilation so that the components do not overheat at peak loads.

Having difficulties?

For the convenience of clients, it is possible to send the resulting configuration for printing. And if difficulties arise, then you should use the help of our engineer, who will tell you which components are best to use to obtain optimal technical characteristics.
By deciding to build a computer with us, you get the best prices and service. We guarantee fast but careful delivery of your system unit.